The New International Encyclopædia/Mohammedanism - Wikisource, the free online library (2024)

MOHAMMEDANISM. The name commonlygiven in the West to the religion founded byMohammed. The proper name is Islam (q.v.),suggested by Mohammed himself, and explained byhim to include the performance of five duties(the ‘five cardinal points of Islam’), viz.:acceptance of the formula, ‘there is no god butAllah, and Mohammed is his prophet’; prayer;alms-giving; the fast of Ramadan; and thepilgrimage to Mecca.

Doctrine and Practice. Like every organizedreligion, Islam, as developed by the Mohammedantheologians, presents two sides—the theoreticalpart, known as ’amān, ‘faith,’ and the practicalpart called din, ‘religion.’ The doctrine concerningGod, His nature and attributes, coincideswith the Jewish and Christian in so far as He isby both taught to be the Creator of all things inheaven and earth, who rules and preserves allthings, without beginning, omnipotent,omniscient, omnipresent, and full of mercy. But,according to the Mohammedan belief, He has nooffspring. Jesus is regarded, like Adam, Abraham,and Moses, as a prophet and apostle,although His birth is said to have been due to adivine intervention; as the Koran superseded theGospel, so Mohammed superseded Christ and allpreceding prophets. Next to the belief in God,that in angels forms a prominent dogma, and,like the former, may be traced back directly toJewish and Christian and in a smaller degree toPersian influences. Created of fire and endowedwith a kind of incorporeal body, angels standbetween God and man. There are four chief angels:Gabriel, the angel of revelation; Michael, thespecial protector and guardian of the Jews;Azrael, the angel of death; Israfil (Uriel), whoseoffice it will be to sound the trumpet at theresurrection. Besides angels there are good and evilgenii (jinns, q.v.), of a grosser fabric than theformer and subject to death. They have differentnames and offices (pīrīs, fairies; deves, giants;takwīns, fates, etc.), and are much like theshēdīm in the Talmud and Midrash and thedemons of other peoples. The chief of the evil geniiis Iblis (q.v.), once called Azazil, who, refusingto pay homage to Adam, was rejected by God. Athird belief is that in certain divinely givenscriptures, revealed successively to the differentprophets. Originally there were 104 sacred books,but only four have survived, viz.: the Pentateuch,the Psalms, the Gospel, and the Koran, and thefirst three are in a mutilated and falsified condition.The number of prophets sent at differenttimes, is stated variously at between 200,000 and300,000. Among them 313 were apostles, and sixwere specially commissioned to proclaim new lawsand dispensations, which abrogated the precedingones. These were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses,Jesus, and Mohammed—the last the greatest ofthem all, and the propagator of the finaldispensation. The belief in the resurrection andthe final judgment is an important article of faith,which in the theological writings, later thanMohammed, is elaborately developed. The conditionof the dead in the future world and the punishmentof the wicked are pictured with a greatmultiplicity of details. The dead are received intheir graves by an angel announcing the comingof the two examiners, Munkar (‘Unknown’) andNakir (‘Repudiating’), who, described as twoblack angels with blue eyes, put questions to thedead respecting his belief in God and Mohammed,and in accordance with the answers, eithertorture or comfort him. The soul, awaiting ageneral resurrection, is treated according to its rank;prophets enter immediately into Paradise;martyrs, in the shape of a green bird, partake of thedelights of the abode of bliss; common believerseither stay near the grave, or are with Adam inthe lowest heaven, or remain in the well Zemzemor in the trumpet of the resurrection, or restin the shape of a white bird under the throne ofGod. The souls of infidels dwell in a certainwell in the province of Hadramaut (interpretedas Chamber of Death), or, being first offered toheaven, then to earth, and rejected by both, aresubject to unspeakable tortures until the day ofresurrection. Concerning the latter, considerablediscrepancy reigns among the Mohammedantheologians. Mohammed himself seems to have heldthat both soul and body will be raised, and it issaid that the rump-bone will remain uncorruptedtill the last day, and from it the whole body willspring anew, after a forty days' rain. Amongthe signs by which the approach of the last daymay be known are the decay of faith among men,the advancing of the meanest persons to the highestdignities, wars, seditions, and tumults, andconsequent dire distress. Certain provinces shallrevolt, and the buildings of Medina shall reach toMecca. These are the eight ‘lesser’ signs; of‘greater’ signs there are no less than 17; the sunwill rise in the west, the Beast will appear,Constantinople will be taken by the descendants ofIsaac, the Antichrist will come and be killed byJesus at Lud (Lydda). Further there will comea war with the Jews, Gog and Magog's (Yājūjand Mājūj) eruption, a great smoke, an eclipse,the Mohammedans will return to idolatry, agreat treasure will be found in the Euphrates,the Kaaba will be destroyed by the Ethiopians,beasts and inanimate things will speak, and finally,a wind will sweep away the souls of thosewho have faith, even if equal only to a grain ofmustard seed, so that the world shall be left inignorance. The time of the resurrection evenMohammed could not learn from Gabriel; it is amystery. Three blasts will announce it; that ofconsternation, of such terrible power that motherswill neglect the babes on their breasts, andheaven and earth will melt; that of examination,which will annihilate all things and beings, eventhe angel of death, save paradise and hell andtheir inhabitants; and, forty years later, that ofresurrection, when all men, Mohammed first,shall have their souls breathed into their restoredbodies, and will sleep in their sepulchres untilthe final doom has been passed upon them. Theday of judgment, lasting from one thousand tofifty thousand years, will call up angels, genii,men, and animals. The trial over, the righteouswill enter paradise, to the right hand, and thewicked will pass to the left, into hell; both,however have first to go over the bridge Al-Sirāṭ,laid over the midst of hell, finer than a hair,sharper than the edge of a sword, and beset withthorns on either side. The righteous willproceed on their path with ease and swiftness, butthe wicked will fall headlong. Hell is dividedinto seven stories or apartments, respectivelyassigned to Mohammedans, Jews, Christians, Sabians,Magians, idolaters, and—the lowest of all—to thehypocrites, who, outwardly professing a religion,in reality had none. The degrees of pain—chieflyconsisting in intense heat and cold—vary; butthe Mohammedans, and all those who professedthe unity of God, will finally be released, whileunbelievers and idolaters will be condemned toeternal punishment. Paradise is divided fromhell by a partition (‘urf) in which a certainnumber of half-saints will find place. Theblessed, destined for the abode of eternal delight(Al-Jannah, Heb. Gan-Eden), will first drinkof the pond of the Prophet, which is suppliedfrom the rivers of Paradise, whiter than milk,and more odoriferous than musk. Arrived at oneof the eight gates, they will be met by beautifulyouths and angels; and their degree of righteousness(prophets, religious teachers, martyrs,believers) will procure for them the correspondingdegree of happiness. Mankind on the last daywill be assembled in three classes: (1) Those whogo on foot, believers whose good works have beenfew; (2) those who ride, believers acceptable inthe eyes of God; and (3) those who creep, theunbelievers. The various felicities which awaitthe pious represent a conglomeration of Jewish,Christian, Zoroastrian, and other fanciesto which the Prophet's own sensual imaginationhas added very considerably. Feasting in the mostgorgeous and delicious variety, the most costlyand brilliant garments, odors, and music of themost ravishing nature, and, above all, the enjoymentof the Ḥur al-‘uyūn, the black-eyed daughters of Paradise (see Houri), created of puremusk, are held out as a reward to the commonestinhabitant of Paradise, who will always remainin the full vigor of youth and manhood. Forthose deserving a higher degree of recompense,rewards will be prepared of a purely spiritualkind—i.e. the ‘beholding of God's face’(Shechinah) by night and by day. The last of theprecepts of pure faith taught by Mohammedanismis the full and unconditional submission toGod's decree, and the predestination of good andevil, which is found from the beginning inscribedon a ‘preserved table.’ Not only a man's fortunes,but his deeds, and consequently his futurereward or punishment, are irrevocably, and thusunavoidably, pre-ordained; a doctrine which isnot, however, taken literally by all Moslems.

The first of the four chief duties of dīn or thepractical part of Islam is prayer, “the key ofParadise.” Certain religious purifications areincluded as necessary preparations. They are of twokinds: the ghusi, or total immersion of the body,required on certain special occasions; and thewudū’, a partial ablution, to be performedimmediately before the prayer. This is of primaryimportance, and consists in washing the hands,face, ears, and feet up to the ankles—a proceedinggenerally accompanied at each stage bycorresponding pious sentences, and concluded by therecital of the ninety-seventh sura of theKoran. If water is not to be had, sand may supplyits place. Even the ground or the carpet uponwhich one prays must be as clean as possible, andthe use of a special prayer-carpet (sajjādah) istherefore recommended. Every Mohammedan isrequired to pray five times in the space of twenty-fourhours. The prayer (ṣalāt) itself consistspartly of extracts from the Koran (farḍ), partlyof sentences ordained upon the precept or practiceof the Prophet (sunna). The times of prayerare: Daybreak (fajr); noon (ẓuhr); afternoon,midway between the second and fourth (‘asr);evening (maghrib); after night has closed in(‘ishā). These several times of prayer areannounced by the muezzins (q.v.) from the minaretsof the mosques. The believer passes througha series of thirteen postures during his prayers;and a certain number of such inclinations of headand knees, prostrations, etc., is called rak‘ah. Itis necessary that the face of the worshiper shouldbe turned toward the kiblah, i.e. in the directionof Mecca (see Kiblah). Women, although notforbidden to enter the mosque, yet are notsupposed to pray there, lest their presence shouldhe hurtful to true devotion. Besides theseprayers, there are others ordained for specialoccasions, as on a pilgrimage, before a battle, atfunerals, during an eclipse, etc. The Moslems donot pray to Mohammed, but simply implore hisintercession, as they do that of the numeroussaints, the relatives of the Prophet, and the firstpropagators of Islam. Petitions, moreover, playa subsidiary part in the prayers, which are chieflymade up of thanksgivings and praise formulas.Mohammedanism has no clergy in the Westernsense of the word, but there is always a leader(’imām), who takes his stand at the head of thecongregation and ‘leads’ the latter in prayer.(See Imam; Mollah;Mufti.) Next to prayerstands the duty of giving alms. These aretwofold, legal (zakāt) and voluntary (ṣadaḳah),but the former, originally collected by thesovereign and applied to pious uses, has now beenpractically abrogated. The sadakah, accordingto the law, is to be given once every year, ofcattle, money, corn, fruits, and wares sold, atabout the rate of from two and a half up totwenty per cent. Besides these, it is usual tobestow a measure of provisions upon the poor atthe end of the sacred month of Kamadan. Theduty of fasting follows. During the whole monthof Ramadan, the Moslem is commanded to refrainfrom eating, drinking, and every indulgence inworldly pleasure, from daybreak until sunset.During the night he is allowed to eat, drink, andenjoy himself. Certain classes are exempt, as itwas Mohammed's special and express desire thatno one should fast who is not equal to it, lesthe injure his health and disqualify himself fornecessary labor. Of other commendable fast-days,the most important is the ‘Ḁshūrā, on thetenth of Muharram, corresponding in a measureto the Jewish Day of Atonement. The fast ofRamadan is universally kept, in letter if not inspirit, fasting being considered “one-fourth partof the faith.” (See Ramadan;Fasts.) Thelast duty is the pilgrimage to Mecca, which everyMoslem must make once in his life, if he be free,sound in body, and able to meet the expense.Women also perform the pilgrimage. To pay theway of one who cannot himself afford it isconsidered a pious act, and the Shiites allow thepilgrimage to be made by proxy. See Hajj;Hajji.

To the 'positive' ordinances of Islam may beadded the ṣaghīr or lesser and kabīr or greaterfestivals. The first (al-fiṭr, or breaking the fast)follows immediately upon Ramadan, beginning onthe first day of the month of Shawwal, and laststhree days. The second (‘īd al-ḳurbān, or sacrificefestival) begins on the tenth of Dhu l-Hijjah.The latter was intended to be the more importantof the two, but the people have in most placeschanged the order, and make the lesser festival,which follows Ramadan, the more joyful and thelonger. The day set aside for the weeklyassembly is Friday, which, however, is not a day ofrest. After prayers the people return to theirordinary affairs.

Islam also enjoins a number of prohibitorylaws based upon utterances of the Prophet. Thedrinking of wine, which includes all strong andinebriating liquors, is vigorously forbidden.Chiefly through European influence some Moslemshave lost their scruples on this score, but thegreat majority of the faithful refuse even to makeuse of the proceeds of the sale of wine or grapes.Some scrupulous believers even include opium,coffee, and tobacco in the prohibition; butgeneral practice has decided differently. Theprohibitory laws respecting food resemble closelythose of Rabbinical Judaism; blood, the flesh ofswine, animals which have died from disease orage, or on which the name of some idol has beeninvoked, or which have been sacrificed unto anidol, or which have been strangled, or killed bya blow, a fall, or by some other beast, are strictlyforbidden. ‘Pure’ animals must be slaughteredaccording to certain fixed rules, and fish, bird,game are generally allowed for food. All gamessubject to chance—such as dice, cards, tables,bets, etc.—are considered so wicked that agambler's testimony is invalid in a court of law.Chess and other games depending on skill—providedthey do not interfere with the regularperformance of religious duties, and that they areplayed without any stakes—are allowed by themajority of Moslem theologians. Usury is strictlyprohibited. Taking interest upon any loans,however large or small, or profiting in tradethrough questionable means, save by buying andselling, is severely condemned. To prevent thefaithful from ever falling back into idolatry, thelaws relating to images and pictures have beenmade very stringent. Whosoever makes an imitationof any living being in stone, wood, or anyother material, shall, on the day of judgment, beasked to endow his creation with life and soul,and, on his protesting his inability of doing so,shall undergo the punishment of hell for acertain period.

The civil and criminal laws of Mohammedanism,founded on both the Koran and the Traditions(Sunna, q.v.), in instances where the letterof the written or oral precept allows of variousexplanations, or where the case in question isunprecedented, are interpreted according to theopinion of one of the four great masters of Islam:Abu Hanifah (born 702), Malik ibn Anas (born714), Mohammed al-Shafii (born 767), andAhmad ibn Hanbal (born 780), within the paleof their respective sects. (SeeMohammedan Sects.)Upon the principal points all Mohammedansagree. In regard to marriage, polygamyis allowed, but not without restriction. Fourwives and a certain number of concubine slavesis the legal limit for a Moslem. The Prophet'sexample proves nothing to the contrary, since hewas endowed with special privileges, and notsubject to the common law in many respects. It is,moreover, added as advice, that to marry one ortwo is quite sufficient for a man. As a matterof fact, the rule among Mohammedans of thepresent day is to have but one wife. A Moslemmay marry a Christian woman or a Jewess, buta Mohammedan woman is not, under any circ*mstances,to marry an unbeliever. In all cases,however, the child born of a Moslem, whateverthe mother's faith, is a Moslem; nor does thewife who is an unbeliever inherit at herhusband's death. Forbidden degrees are: Themother, daughter, sister, half-sister, aunt, niece,foster-mother, or a woman related to the faithful“by milk in any of the degrees which wouldpreclude his marriage with her if she were similarlyrelated to him by consanguinity;” the mother ofhis wife, even if he be not yet actually marriedto the latter; the daughter of his wife, if thelatter still be his legal wife; his father's wifeand his son's wife; two sisters at the same time;wives who stand to each other in the relation ofaunt and niece; or the unemancipated slave, oranother man's slave, if he have already a freewife. A simple declaration of a man and womanat the age of puberty, before two witnesses, oftheir intention to marry each other, and thepayment of part of the dowry (which is indispensable,and must amount to at least ten dirhems,or about one dollar) is sufficient for a legalmarriage. A girl under age is given away byher natural or appointed guardian, with or withouther consent. To see the face of any womanwho is neither his wife nor his concubine, norbelongs to any of the forbidden degrees, is strictlyforbidden to the believer. Divorce is a comparativelylight matter with the Mohammedans.Twice a man may send away his wife and takeher back again without any ceremony; thethird time, however, he may not receive her againin wedlock unless she have been married properly to another man in the meantime. Meredislike is sufficient reason for a man to dissolve theconjugal ties, and his saying “Thou artdivorced,” or “I divorce thee,” together with therepayment of the dowry, is all that is requiredfrom him by the law. A wife, on the other hand,is bound to her husband forever, unless she canprove some flagrant ill usage or neglect ofconjugal duty on his part; and even then sheforfeits part, or the whole, of her dowry. A divorcedwoman is obliged to wait, like the widow, for acertain period before marrying again. If shehave a young child, she is to suckle it until it betwo years old, and the father is to bear all theexpenses of the maintenance of mother and child.If a slave becomes a mother by her master, andhe acknowledges the child to be his own, the latteris free, and the mother is to be emancipatedat the master's death, and may not be givenaway or otherwise disposed of by him during hislifetime. A free person, wishing to marry his orher slave, must first emancipate this slave; andif the slave of another person has been marriedby a free man or woman, and afterwards becomesthe latter's property, the marriage becomesillegal, and can only be renewed by a legalcontract and emancipation. As regards inheritance,males generally receive a double share. A personmay not bequeath more than one-third of hisproperty, unless there be no legal heirs. Children,whether begotten with the legal wife orslave, or concubine, or only adopted, and theirdescendants, are the first heirs; next come theclaims of wives, parents, brothers, sisters, intheir order. Where there is no legal heir, theproperty falls to the State. The law is verylenient toward debtors. Insolvency and inabilityto work for the discharge of the claim solve allfurther obligations. The most conscientiousperformance of all private contracts is constantlyrecommended in the Koran. Murder is eitherpunished with death or by the payment of a fineto the family of the deceased, according to theirown pleasure. There must, however, be palliatingcirc*mstances in the latter case. TheBedouins still maintain the primitive Semitic lawof blood-revenge, and up to this day the‘vendetta’ often rages not only between family andfamily, but between whole tribes, villages, andprovinces. Unintentional homicide is expiated byfreeing a believer from slavery, and paying to thefamily a certain sum in proportion to the rankand sex of the deceased. He who has not themeans of freeing a believer is to fast for twomonths by way of penance. According to thestrict letter of the law a man is not liable tocapital punishment for killing his own child oran infidel; but practically no difference is madeby the Mohammedan governments (chiefly theTurkish) at the present time. Murder ispunished with death and no fine frees the culprit.Injuries to the person are punished according tothe primitive law of retaliation; that is, acertain proportionate fine in money is to be paidto the injured. The payment for any of thesingle limbs of the human body (e.g. the nose)is the full price of blood, as for a homicide;for a limb which is found twice, like hand or foot,half; for a finger or a toe, the tenth part, etc.Women and slaves have smaller claims.Injuries of a dangerous or otherwise grievousnature pay the full price; those of an inferior kind,however, bring the perpetrator within the province of the lash or cudgel. The Koran orderssmall theft to be punished by cutting off thechief offending limb, the right hand; the secondtheft is punishable by the loss of the left foot;the third, of the left hand; the fourth, of theright foot, etc.; but the ordinary punishmentsof imprisonment, hard labor, and the bastinadohave been substituted in later times. The propertystolen must not, however, have been of easyaccess to the thief, nor must it have consisted offood, since he may have taken this to satisfy thecraving of his hunger. Unchastity on the part ofa woman was in the commencement of Islampunished by imprisonment for life, for which afterwards,however, stoning was substituted in thecase of a married woman, and a hundred stripesand a year's exile in the case of an unmarriedfree woman, a slave to undergo only half of thatpunishment. He who accuses a ‘woman ofreputation’ of adultery or fornication must producefour (male) witnesses, and if he be not able todo so, he is to receive fourscore stripes, nor is histestimony ever after to be received unless heswear four times that he speaks the truth, andthe fifth time imprecate God's vengeance if hespeak false. Even this testimony may beoverthrown by the wife's swearing four times thather accuser is a liar, and imprecating the fifthtime the wrath of God upon herself if he speakthe truth. In the latter case she is free frompunishment; the marriage, however, is to bedissolved. Fornication in either sex is, by the lawof the Koran, to be visited with a hundredstripes. Infidelity, or apostacy from Islam, is acrime to be visited by the death of the offender,if he have been warned thrice without recanting.Severer still, that is, not to be averted by repentanceor revocation of any kind, is the punishmentinflicted for blasphemy—against God,Mohammed, Jesus, Moses, or any other prophet.Immediate death is the doom of the offender.

A further injunction of the Koran is that ofmaking war against the infidels (jihād). Hewho is slain while fighting in defense of Islam orfor its propagation is reckoned a martyr; whilea deserter from the holy war is held up as anobject of execration, and has forfeited his life inthis world as well as in the world to come. Atfirst all the enemies taken in battle wereruthlessly slain; later, however, it became the lawto give the people of a different faith againstwhom war was declared the choice of threethings—either to embrace Islam, in which casethey became Moslems at once, free in theirpersons and fortunes, and entitled to all theprivileges of Moslems; or to submit to pay tribute,in which case they were allowed to continue intheir religion, if it did not imply gross idolatryor otherwise offend against the moral law; or todecide the quarrel by the fortune of war—inwhich case the captive women and children weremade slaves, and the men either slain if theydid not become converts at the last moment, orotherwise disposed of by the prince. The fifthpart of the spoil belongs ‘to God,’ that is, mustbe devoted to a sanctuary, to the Prophet and hiskindred, to the orphans, the poor, and thetraveler.

It must not be overlooked that the Islam ofhistory and of the present time is not the pureand unmodified teaching of its founder. TheKoran was not intended to be a systematicallyarranged code of laws. Such laws and regulations as it contains were called forth by someoccurrence during the Prophet's life, and were,properly, supplementary to existing laws andcustoms, which they abrogated, confirmed, ormodified according to the occasion. In course oftime cases arose for which no written rules couldbe found laid down by Mohammed. Recourse wasthen had to traditional oral dicta or to theSunna (q.v.); in time precedents wereestablished and laws came into force by the concurrenceof the learned (ijmā‘), or by a process ofreasoning (ḳiyās). In this way the peculiarsystem which is called Mohammedan jurisprudencecame into being, theoretically founded onthe Koran, but often strangely at variance withthe principles and spirit of its author. In likemanner the reprehensible features of the doctrineand daily life of Islam must not be chargedindiscriminately against Mohammed. That part ofthe system which most distinctly reveals themind of its founder, and which also has undergoneleast change in the course of time andconstitutes its most complete and brightest part, isits ethics. Injustice, falsehood, pride, vindictiveness,calumny, mockery, avarice, prodigality,debauchery, mistrust, and suspicion are inveighedagainst as ungodly and wicked; while benevolence,liberality, modesty, forbearance, patienceand endurance, frugality, sincerity, straightforwardness,decency, love of peace and truth, andabove all trust in God and submission to Hiswill, are considered as the pillars of true pietyand the principal signs of a true believer.Mohammed never expressly laid down that doctrineof absolute predestination and “fatality” whichdestroys all human will and freedom, and whichby the influence of Mohammedan theologiansbecame a fixed element in the orthodox creed.A glance at his system of faith (so far as hehad a system), built on hope and fear, rewardsand punishments, paradise and hell, both to beman's portion according to his acts in this life,and the incessant exhortations to virtue, anddenunciations of vice, are sufficient to prove thataboriginal predestination is not in the Koran,where only submission to Allah's will, hopeduring misfortune, modesty in prosperity, andentire confidence in the divine plans, aresupported by the argument that everything is in thehands of the highest being, and that there is noappeal against his absolute decrees. This is butone instance of the way in which Mohammed'sdicta have been developed and explained—insuch a manner that he has often been made toteach doctrines which he really did not teach;and thus many elements now found in the Moslemcreed, if carefully traced back to theiroriginal source, will be seen to be the growthof later generations.

In a general estimate of Mohammedanism itshould not be forgotten what Islam has donefor the cause of humanity and more particularlythe share it had in the development of scienceand art in Europe. Broadly speaking, theMohammedans may be said to have been the teachersof barbarous Europe from the ninth to thethirteenth century. It is from the days of theAbbasside rulers that the real renaissance of theGreek spirit and Greek culture is to be dated.Classical literature would have been irredeemablylost had it not been for the home it foundin the schools of the “unbelievers” of the “darkages.” Arabic philosophy, medicine, naturalhistory, geography, history, grammar, rhetoric,schooled by the old Hellenic masters, and the“golden art of poetry,” brought forth anabundant harvest of works, many of which will liveand teach as long as there will be generationsto be taught. SeeArabic Language and Literature.

History. In the first three years of hismission Mohammed won forty converts, includinghis wife, Khadija, Abu Bekr, and Othman. Thenfollowed Ali, Omar ibn Khattab, and Hamza.In 615 the persecutions of the Koreish drovefifteen of the converts into Abyssinia, and theywere later joined by a hundred more. AfterMohammed's return from Taif to Mecca he wonover some of the Bani Khazraj of Yathrib(Medina), who then made converts among the BaniAns, formerly their enemies. The new faithspread rapidly from tribe to tribe, the BaniAbd al-Ashhal going over in a body. In 622 thenumber of Mohammedan pilgrims from Yathribwas 73. After the flight from Mecca Medina wasorganized into a commonwealth, and Islambecame a political as well as a religiousmovement.

Mohammed's plans included now nothing lessthan the conversion of the world to Islam. Ifhe had at first hoped to accomplish this bypeaceful measures alone, the aggressiveness of hisenemies in advancing against Medina soon forcedthe preacher to become warrior also, and militarysuccess won more and more converts. Inthe sixth year of the Hejira Mohammed sentletters to the Byzantine Emperor, Heraclius, tothe King of Persia, to the Governor of Yemen, tothe Governor of Egypt, and to the King of Abyssiniainviting them to join the new religion. Inthe same year he converted part of the BaniDaws of Yemen, and two years later the rest ofthe tribe followed; in the meanwhile fifteenother tribes responded. With the fall of Meccain A.H. 8, the triumph of Islam in Arabia wasassured. Some of the Prophet's bitterest enemiesbecame his most ardent followers; and the nextyear saw so many embassies suing for alliancethat it became known as the ‘year of thedeputations.’

After Abu Bekr had brought about theresubjugation of the northern tribes, who hadrevolted on Mohammed's death, an army was sentinto Syria, as the Prophet himself had planned.A second army was sent into Irak. The lattercame into contact with the Persian forces, andin Omar's caliphate, by the victory at Kadisiyyah,Chaldira and Mesopotamia were assured tothe Arabs. Christian Bedouins of both sides ofthe Euphrates became converted at this time,even though tolerance was extended to those whokept their own faith. In Syria almost the onlyopposition came from Heraclius's armies. Thegreat mass of the people, oppressed by the Byzantines,welcomed the Arabs. By 639 the Greekshad been driven out of the province, most ofthe large towns having made treaties whichguaranteed them toleration of religious belief,and protection of life and properly on the merepayment of the ji*zyah (poll-tax) and kharaj(land-tax). Friendly relations being thusestablished, in the following years there was a gradualassimilation of Arabic manners and customsthroughout Syria, which made the conversion ofthe natives easy. Many Christians wereconverted in the fifty years between Omar and Abdal-Malik in Irak, Khorasan, etc. Omar II. (717-720)was particularly successful by lighteningthe burdens of Mohammedan landowners. Inaddition, the children of women captives werebrought up as Moslems; and slaves were allowedto purchase their freedom at the price of conversion.In the tenth century the Nestorian Bishopof Bet Garmai was a noted convert; in 1016Ignatius, the Jacobite Metropolitan of Takrit(at Bagdad), became Abu Muslim. Convertswere won in the following centuries, even fromamong the Crusaders. Bainaud and his followersembraced Mohammedanism in a body; 3000Crusaders accepted Islam in Phrygia in 1148, asa result of Mohammedan kindness contrastedwith ill-treatment on the part of Greek Christians.Today over fifty per cent, of the populationof Syria and Palestine is Moslem.

The rapidity with which Mohammedanismspread in Syria and Mesopotamia was not duplicatedin the country to the north. In Armenia,even after the Christian power had beenoverthrown by the Seljuks of the eleventh century,the mass of the population continued Christian.Georgia resisted until the invasion of theMongols. After the fall of Constantinople (1453)the western and central portions of the countrybecame converted, and after the ruling dynastyof Samtskhé in 1625 had become Mohammedan,progress was rapid among the aristocracy. Theeastern portion of the country had submittedto Persia, and as such was naturally subject toMohammedan influence. In the seventeenthcentury there were two petty kingdoms in the Eastthe rulers of which, though native princes, wereMoslems. Since the beginning of the nineteenthcentury Georgia has belonged to Russia, butcertain parts are still Mohammedan.

After the Mohammedans had succeeded insubduing Syria they turned their attention to Egypt.Amr ibn al-Asi drove the Byzantines out in A.D.641, and the whole of the country as far southas Abyssinia and as far west as Libya cameunder Moslem influence. The conquerors, whotreated the natives, and especially the Copts, withgreat favor, were welcomed by them. ManyCopts accepted Islam even before the fall ofAlexandria; while the number of converts, partlyforced, partly willing, that were made up to theCaliphate of Omar II. (717-720) was large.In the twelfth century Islam was carried,principally by Moslem merchants, into Lower Egypt,and in the fourteenth century into Nubia, theKing of Dongola becoming a Moslem in 1340. InAbyssinia conversions were first made in thecoast towns in the tenth century, and toward theend of the twelfth a Mohammedan dynasty wasfounded. In the sixteenth century the MohammedanKingdom of Adal, between Abyssinia andthe southern end of the Red Sea, came intoexistence; in the seventeenth, one-third of its entirepopulation was Moslem, while in the middle ofthe nineteenth one-half of the central provinceof Abyssinia had likewise been converted.

Amr ibn al-Asi conquered Northern Africaas far as Barca. Before the end of thecentury rapid progress had been made among theBerbers, who made their last resistance at theSpring of Kahina in 703. Musa ibn Nusair andOmar II., the Conqueror, made innumerableconverts. In 780 Western Africa (Mauretania)became separated from Egypt as a kingdom underIdris, founder of the Idriside dynasty; in addition to converting many Berbers, he is said tohave forced Christians and Jews to apostatize.The Berbers, however, under the Idrisides asunder the Aghlabites (a dynasty founded in 801by Ibrahim ibn Aghlab, hereditary governor ofIfrikiyyah) were in constant revolt. In thebeginning of the tenth century Abu Abd Allahappeared among them as the apostle of theIsmailian sect, and succeeded in winning over thewhole of the powerful Kitamah tribe to thesupport of the Imamate of Ubaid Allah; and thedynasty of the Fatimites was thus successfullyestablished in Kairwan. Early in the eleventhcentury the faith spread rapidly among theBerbers of the Sahara also, among whom it hadbeen introduced in the ninth century. Therevival was due principally to a chieftain of theLamtuna tribe, Abd Allah ibn Yassin, whofounded a monastery and won many disciplesfrom various tribes, to which he sent them backas missionaries. In 1042 he led his followers,known as the Murabbitin (Almoravides), againstthe neighboring tribes, and by force and persuasionsucceeded in establishing a vast empire.Before the end of the century it extended fromSenegambia to Algiers; Mohammedan Spain wasbrought under the sway of the Almoravides. Inthe beginning of the seventh century anotherdynasty was founded among the Berbers, whenAbu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Tumartappeared in the Mauretanian mountains andpreached especially against the laxity of moralsand the excessive veneration paid to saints. Hisfollowers became known as the Muwaḥḥidin(Almohades, or Unitarians). The conquests andconversions of the Almohades were likewiseenormous; by 1160 they had an empire extendingfrom Barea to the Atlantic, and embracingMohammedan Spain. After these events but fewof the Berbers remained heathens.

From Northern Africa Islam soon penetratedinto the interior of the continent. The Almoravidesmade many converts in the eleventh centuryamong the negroes of the Sudan, who hadalready become familiar with the new faiththrough the visits of merchants and missionaries.The negro tribes of the west were first won over;as early as 1010 the King of Surhay (southeastof Timbuktu) became a Moslem; the States onthe upper Niger, Timbuktu (founded in 1077) andMelle (West Sudan, founded by the Mandingos),followed and furnished active missionaries aswell. The kingdoms of Bornu and Kanem,along Lake Chad, became converted in theeleventh century, the latter kingdom extendingas far as Egypt and Nubia. In Darfur aMoslem dynasty was founded in the fourteenthcentury and is reigning to-day; at the end of thesixteenth century Wadai and Bagirmi, and in theseventeenth, portions of the Hausa country,became Moslem. In the nineteenth century therewas a remarkable revival of Mohammedanismdue to the influence of the Wahhabis. TheFulahs were united into one political organizationby Sheikh Othman Danfodio, and compelled allthe remaining tribes to accept Islam. To-daythere are four powerful Mohammedan kingdomsin Senegambia and the Sudan. The nineteenthcentury movement was aided by such religiousorders as the Amirghaniyyah, the Tijaniyyah, theKadriyyah. and the Sanusiyyah. The vasttheocracy of the Sanusiyyah has settlements andschools extending from Egypt to Morocco, in theSudan, Senegambia, Somaliland, the Sahara,and the Galla country; they have gained manyconverts by education and the purchase of slaves.

Along the west coast of Africa Islam has madesteady progress; e.g. on the Guinea Coast, in SierraLeone, in the Ashanti country, Dahomey, the GoldCoast, Lagos (where there are 10,000 Moslems),and Liberia (where there are more Moslems thanheathen). Often the common people areconverts where the chieftains are not. There ishardly a town along the coast for 2000 milesfrom the Senegal which has not a mosque.

On the east coast the Emozaydij made settlementsbefore the tenth century; they wereShiites, and were followed by Sunnis, who foundedthe town of Magadoxo, and other towns on thecoast from Aden to the Tropic of Capricorn. Arabtraders made Zanzibar Mohammedan. Inland,however, only the Galla and Somali tribes areeven partly Moslem. In Cape Colony there havebeen Moslems since the seventeenth andeighteenth centuries, Islam having been carried thereby the Malays. Even among the Hottentots thereare converts who make the pilgrimage to Mecca,while in the diamond fields the coolies are saidto be missionaries.

Islam was introduced into Spain in 711 byTarik with 12,000 Berbers. The first convertswere from among the ill-treated slaves. Theremnant of the heathen population followed, then thenobles and the middle and lower classes of theChristians, so that the majority of the populationsoon consisted of Mohammedans of non-Arabblood. In 1311 there were 200,000 Mohammedansin Granada alone, only 500 of them beingof Arab descent. On the whole, conversion wascarried on peacefully except when the Almoravidesat the close of the eleventh century cameto Spain. The Moslem power began to crumbleaway as early as the eleventh century; the lastMoriscos were driven out in 1609.

The other Mohammedan empire in Europe,that of the Turks, made its first conquests atthe time of the decline of Islam in Spain. Theinception of the Ottoman Empire dates from thebeginning of the thirteenth century, when 50,000Turks settled in the northwest of Asia Minor.In 1353 they entered Europe for the first timeand in 1361 made Adrianople their capital.Before the end of the century Bulgaria, Macedonia,Thessaly, and most of Thrace had been subduedby Bajazet; Amurath II. (1421-51) added to thisterritory, and Mohammed II. (1451-81), aftertaking Constantinople in 1453, extended his ruleover Greece, Servia, Bosnia, and Albania. Alarge part of Hungary was added by Solyman II.(1520-66); in the seventeenth century Crete wastaken, and Podolia was ceded by the Poles. Themost noted example of forced conversion was theenrollment of Christian children in the ranks ofthe Janizaries (q.v.). Large numbers wereconverted peaceably from all ranks; in the fifteenthcentury Adrianople was the home of countlessrenegades; in the seventeenth converts were madeeven among the Christian clergy. Progress wasvery rapid at this time. The power of Servia wasbroken by the Turks in 1389, but the countrywas not reduced to the position of a Turkishprovince until 1459, when the inhabitants choseMohammedan rule in preference to the RomanCatholicism of Hungary. However, though thenobles became Moslems, only in Old Servia(northeast of Albania), since the seventeenthcentury, has the spread of Islam been rapid. Thesame period was the date of the rapid conversionof Montenegro; in Bosnia, the Bogomiles joinedIslam in huge numbers after Mohammed II. hadreleased over seventy cities from Catholicpersecution. The other inhabitants followed gradually,and the Christians left the way clear byemigrating into the neighboring countries. Theconversion of the inhabitants of Crete first tookplace in the ninth and tenth centuries, when thewhole population joined Islam; at the beginningof the thirteenth century the Venetians acquiredthe island, and in 1669, when it was taken fromVenice by the Turks, the inhabitants had to bereconverted; within 50 years half of them wereagain Moslem.

In Persia, Islam made progress very early, forunder Zoroastrianism the people were oppressedby priest and ruler alike. After the fall of theSassanid dynasty in the middle of the seventhcentury, converts were easily made, at firstmainly from among the despised industrialclasses and artisans. Later the Shiites met withgreat success, for Hosein, son of Ali, hadmarried Shahban, daughter of Yezdegird, the lastSassanid; and in the middle of the eighth centurythe Ismailians showed a wonderful power ofadapting themselves and their teachings to allclasses and creeds. At the close of the eighthcentury Saman, a noble of Balkh, became a Moslemand founded the dynasty of the Samanids(874-999). Conversions were made in the ninthcentury by Karim ibn Shahriyar, the convertedKing of the Kabusiyyah dynasty, and by Nasiral-Hakk of Dailam; in 912 Hasan ibn Ali, of anAbd dynasty on the Caspian, made many convertsin Dailam and Tabaristan.

North of Persia there had been much oppositionto Islam, and allegiance to the Caliph wasoften renounced as soon as the armies werewithdrawn. In Samarkand, however, conversionswere brought about by Ibn Kutaibah, who burnedthe heathens' idols. Among the Afghans theKing of Kabul was converted about 800; inTransoxiana many converts were made in theeighth century, and by the middle of the ninthMohammedanism was general. The greatestimpetus to the spread of the new faith came aboutthe middle of the tenth century, when some ofthe Turkish chieftains were converted; in Turkestanthe founder of the Hak Khans converted2000 families of his tribe, who became known asTurcomans. In 956 the Seljuk Turks had theirorigin, when Selijek migrated with his clan toBokhara from the Kirghiz steppes.

Much of the progress which Islam had madewas lost by the Mongol invasion. Bokhara,Samarkand, Balkh, and Bagdad were left in ruins,and almost without inhabitants. Many Mongolrulers, such as Kublai Khan, were energetic intheir opposition to Islam. But in the time ofOgotai Khan (1229-1241) certain Buddhists wereconverted; Yisun-Timur Khan (1323-28) was anearnest Moslem, and made converts of his troops;Baraka Khan (1256-65) turned Moslem with hissubjects—the first ruling Mongol prince to takethis step in the eastern portion of the Mongolterritory. But it was not till 1295 that Islambecame the ruling religion of Persia; at thatdate Ghazan, seventh of the Hak khans, joinedthe new faith. In the Middle Kingdom, in thereigns of Tirneashirin Khan (1322-30) andTukluk Timur Khan (1347-63), Islam becamegenerally adopted, though Burak Khan (1266-70)had also been a Moslem. In the GoldenHorde the leaders and aristocracy followedBaraka Khan when he became converted; UzbegKhan (1313-40) placed Islam on a solid basis.The Mongols were likewise successful, to someextent, in introducing Mohammedanism intoRussia; e.g. in the Crimea and among the Finns,the Tcheremisses, the Tchuvashes (wholevillages of which are Moslem), and the northeastRussian tribes, among whom there are manysecret Mohammedans. In Siberia the firstconversions were made in the latter half of thesixteenth century. Since 1745 the Baraba Tatars,between the Irtish and Ob, have been converted.

In India the first great Mohammedan conquerorwas Mohammed Kasim (711), who took Darbul(capital of Sindh), Multan, and other citiesearly in the eighth century. Under Omar II. thenative princes were called upon to becomeMohammedans, and received Arabic names; butmany of them later became heathens again. In1019 Hardat and 10,000 men accepted Islam; butit was some time before the new religion gaineda firm footing in India. Down to near the closeof the twelfth century Mohammedan India wasonly a province of Ghazni; at that time MohammedGhori conquered the northern part to themouth of the Ganges, and his slave Kutb al-Dinwas made Viceroy of Delhi. The latter thenproclaimed himself sovereign of Hindustan andfounded the dynasty of the “Slave Kings,” thefirst Mohammedan dynasty in India. MohammedGhori likewise converted the Ghakkars, in themountains north of Punjab. Under the succeedingdynasty, the Khiljis (1295-1320), Mohammedanrule was extended to the Deccan. TheTughlak dynasty which followed was troubled byrevolt and desertion, and its power was muchreduced; the Sayyids, as well as the Lodis (1451-1526),were rulers over but one province, Bengal,Jaunpur, Malwa, and Gujarat having independentMoslem dynasties. The Mogul Empire wasestablished in 2526 by Baber, and then Islamicinfluences were more successful. Many rajputswere converted when idolatry was made a barto advancement at court. In the easterndistricts of the Punjab and in Cawnpore, manyconverts were made in the reign of Aurungzebe.

In Southern India and in Bengal the spreadof Islam was more rapid. The southern coastwas subject to the Mohammedan influences oftraders; even in the eighth century refugees hadcome there from Irak, and missionaries in theeleventh. In Malabar the Mappilas, descendantsof the early refugees, are estimated at one-fifthof the population. The Laccadive and Maldiveislands, as well as Malabar, have an almostexclusively Moslem population. In the Deccan,Arabs settled in the tenth century; it had theMohammedan dynasties of the Bahmanids (1347-1490)and Bijapur (1439-1686). Bengal wasthe scene of most active propaganda, and Islamwas welcomed especially among the lower casteBrahmins. Lower Bengal has been the scene ofa great Mohammedan revival even in the lastfew years. Kashmir had a Mohammedan king inthe fourteenth century; Islam became supreme inthe time of Akbar, and to-day claims over seventyper cent. of the population. In Baltistan therehas been a Mohammedan population for overthree centuries, and the faith is being carried bymerchants from Kashmir, as well as from Persia, even into Tibet. In the various parts ofIndia there are about 60,000,000 Moslems, thenumber of annual converts being estimatedvariously from 10,000 to 600,000. It is worthnoticing, however, that in Agra and Delhi, thecentres of Moslem power, but from one-tenth toone-fourth of the population is Moslem.

Mohammedanism penetrated into China fromthe south and from the west. Friendly relationswere established between the Caliphs and theEmperors in the time of the Caliph Walid (705-717),when the general Kutaibah ibn Muslimsent ambassadors to the Chinese Court. LaterMoslem traders entered from Arabia, Bokhara,and Transoxiana. The first mosque was built in742, in the capital city, Shen-si, Northern China.In 758, 4000 Arab soldiers were sent by theCaliph Al-Mansur to aid the Emperor Sah-Tsungin crushing a rebellion; they remained in Chinaand intermarried with the natives. The annals ofthe Thang dynasty (618-907) record the arrivalof Moslems at Canton; there in the ninth centurythey lived as a separate community. They werejoined later by other arrivals, and intermarriedwith the natives. Mohammedans entered theProvince of Kan-su (part of the Empire ofHoey-hu), and the Khan was converted, in thetenth century. The Uigurs, a Turkish tribetransferred to the Great Wall in the Thang dynasty,became Moslems in the ninth century. All ofthese Moslem communities formed centres forthe spread of Islam throughout the Empire.Further accessions of Syrians, Arabs, andPersians followed the great Mongol conquest. Underthe Mongol Khakans Mohammedans were welltreated and rose to positions of trust (in 1244Abd al-Rahman was head of the Imperialfinances). At the beginning of the fourteenthcentury all the inhabitants of Yun-nan wereMoslems, and in every town throughout theEmpire there was a special Moslem quarter.After the expulsion of the Mongols theMohammedans avoided all external signs of theirreligion, and assimilated themselves as far aspossible to the rest of the population, while keepingthe essentials of their religion intact. Missionaryefforts were continued quietly and slowly butsurely; the only conversion in large numberstook place in 1770, when a revolt was put downin Sungaria, and the 10,000 military colonistswho were sent there all embraced Islam, andafter a famine in 1790 in the Province of Kwang-tung,when 10,000 children are said to havebeen bought, and brought up as Moslems. Therewas a general revival of interest in the eighteenthcentury, when commercial relations werereëstablished with the outside Mohammedanworld. To-day there are 20,000,000 Mohammedansin the Chinese Empire, of whichthree-fourths are in the provinces of Kan-su and Shen-si,in the northwest. As an example of the citiesin the east, Peking has 20,000 Moslems, with 13mosques.

The spread of Islam into the Malay Islandsdates from the twelfth century, when more orless successful attempts were made to introduceit into Sumatra; in the fourteenth century thesherif of Mecca sent missionaries to the islandand succeeded in making many converts. In thefifteenth century the great Kingdom of Menang-Kabanhad many converts, and the larger part ofcentral Sumatra is now Moslem. On the MalayPeninsula the Kingdom of Malacca was converted in the thirteenth or fourteenth century;the Moslems of the peninsula to-day are said tobe most strict in their religious practices, thoughextremely tolerant, converts have been madeamong the Siamese Buddhists of the north andamong the wild tribes of the peninsula. In Javathe first notable success of Islam took place inthe fourteenth century; and in the followingcentury the new faith was firmly established on theeast coast. In the fifteenth century Radan Rahmat,nephew of the Hindu King of Majapahit,made many converts in Ampel, and in otherplaces on the east coast; at the same timeconversions were made in the west. Radan Patahheaded a confederacy which, in 1478, defeatedthe King of Majapahit, replacing the Hindu witha Moslem dynasty. To-day nearly the whole ofJava is Mohammedan. In Celebes, generalconversion along the coast began in the seventeenthcentury. The Macassars were the first converts;they then, after much resistance, converted theBugis, who likewise became propagandists. Inthe north the Kingdom of Balaang-Mongondou,which was Christian for centuries, was finallyconverted in 1844. The population of this kingdomis now half heathen and half Moslem. Theisland of Sumbawa has had a Moslem populationsince 1540; Lombok was one of the scenes ofconversion by the Bugis.

In the Philippine Islands there has been a longstruggle between Christianity and Islam. InMindanao and the Sulu Islands civilized Mohammedantribes existed as early as 1521, when theSpaniards came to the islands. Owing to theirobnoxious and ill-advised methods, theSpaniards could make no progress in the face ofIslam. The Mohammedans, as elsewhere, learnedthe language of the people, adopted theircustoms and intermarried with them, therebywinning great success. The independent Kingdom ofMindanao had 360,000 Moslem subjects in thenineteenth century. The Sulu Islands have alsobeen a Mohammedan stronghold, thoughnominally Catholic. Among the ruder inhabitants,those of the lower classes, in the northern islands,Islam has not made much headway, as indeedhas been the case throughout the archipelago.In New Guinea and the islands to the northwestof it, progress has been made only on the coasts.In the archipelago as a whole, however, Islam isspreading; in Java, for instance, there were33,802 pilgrims to Mecca in 1874, and 48,237 in1886. Books are printed in Mecca in the variousMalay languages; in 1882 the Mohammedanschools of Java had 255,000 students. The religiousorders, especially the Sanusiyyah, are veryactive.

It is almost impossible to give reliable figuresof the total Mohammedan population of theworld. The official estimate of the TurkishGovernment, which may be considered very conservative,places the number at 176,000,000. This isdivided as follows: In the Turkish dominions,18,000,000; in other parts of Asia, 99,000,000; inAfrica, 36,000,000; in other countries and in theislands of the Eastern seas, 23,000,000. The wholeof British India, with its dependencies, accordingto the census of 1901, contained 62,458,000Mohammedans. Mann (North American Review,November, 1900) gives the following figures: India,57,061,796; Burma, 210,049; Malay Archipelago,31,042,000; China, 32,000,000; Africa,80,000,000; a total of 200,313,845. There areabout 250,000 Mohammedans in the Sulu groupof the Philippine Islands.

Bibliography. The works mentioned in thearticles Koran andMohammed are all importantfor the general subject of Islam. Of other worksthe following is a select, but by no meanscomplete, list: Geiger, Was hat Mohammed aus demJudenthum aufgenommen? (Bonn, 1833; Eng.trans., London, 1899); Lane, The Manners andCustoms of the Modern Egyptians (London, 1836;many subsequent editions), the best popularaccount of Mohammedan life and customs; Dozy,Het Islamisme (Leyden, 1863; French trans.,Essai sur l'histoire de l'Islamisme, Paris, 1879);Kremer, Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen desIslam (Leipzig, 1868); id., Kulturgeschichte desOrients unter den Chalifen (Vienna, 1875-77);Ahmed Khan Bahador, A Series of Essays on theLife of Mahomet and Subjects Subsidiary Thereto(London, 1870); Hunter, Our Indian Mussulmans(ib., 1871); Deutsch, Essay on Islam(ib., 1874); Vambéry, Der Islam im 19tenJahrhundert (Leipzig, 1875); Hauri, Der Islamin seinem Einfluss auf das Leben seiner Bekenner(Leyden, 1881); Pischon, Der Einfluss desIslam auf das hausliche, sociale undpolitische Leben seiner Bekenner (Leipzig,1881); Blunt, The Future of Islam (London,1880); Poole, Studies in a Mosque (ib.,1883); Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam (ib.,1885; incomplete and not always trustworthy);August Müller, Der Islam im Morgen- und Abendlande(Berlin, 1885-87); Snouck-Hurgronje,“De Islam,” in De Gids (1886, No. 5);Le Chatelier, L'Islamisme au 19e siècle (Paris,1889); Goldziher, Mohammedanische Studien(i., Halle, 1889; ii., 1890); Ameer Ali, The Lifeand Teachings of Mohammed (London, 1891), adefense of Islam by an intelligent and educatedMoslem; T. W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam(Westminster, 1896); De Castries, L'Islam(Paris, 1897); Jansen, Verbreitung des Islam(Friedrichshagen, 1897); Sachan, MuhammedanischesRecht nach schafiitischer Lehre (Stuttgart,1897); Carra de Vaux, Le Mahometisme(Paris, 1898); Atterbury, Islam in Africa (NewYork, 1899); Le Chatelier, L'Islamisme dansl'Afrique occidentale (Paris, 1899); Forget,L'Islam et le Christianisme dans l'Afriquecentrale (ib., 1900); Sell, Essays on Mohammedanism(London, 1901); Macdonald, Developmentof Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence, andConstitutional Theory (New York, 1903). SeeKoran; Mohammed;Shiites; Sunna;Mohammedan Sects; Mecca;Medina.